When Germany overran Greece in 1941, one last Allied stronghold in the region remained: the island of Crete. With the Italian navy unable to guarantee control of the seas, Adolf Hitler turned to his prized Fallschirmjäger, German paratroopers, to seize the island in the first large-scale airborne assault in history
The invasion quickly descended into chaos. Allied anti-aircraft fire shredded German transport planes, scattering paratroopers across the island. Many landed far from their supply canisters and were left armed with only pistols. Greek civilians joined British, Australian, Greek and New Zealand troops in resisting the landings, further adding to the confusion.
Against the odds, German paratroopers captured the Maleme airfield, enabling reinforcements to fly in and overwhelm the defenders. The island fell, but at staggering cost. Thousands of elite paratroopers were killed or wounded, and dozens of valuable transport aircraft were lost.
Three years later, the Allies would put their own airborne forces to the test by learning from Germany’s setbacks.
Why The Germans Struggled on Crete
German paratroopers had excelled in small raids early in the war, such as seizing Belgium’s Fort Eben-Emael and key positions in Norway. Crete was different as it was the only time they attempted to capture a heavily defended objective entirely by airborne assault.
Several flaws hampered the operation. German paratroopers did not jump with rifles or machine guns; instead, weapons were dropped separately in canisters. Troops were expected to land, form a perimeter, then gather their weapons and ammunition. But their parachute design left them unable to steer during descent, causing many to land in trees, water or on buildings, often far from their equipment.
The Luftwaffe also failed to establish air superiority. British fighters and anti-aircraft guns inflicted heavy losses on German transports. Meanwhile, the Royal Navy ferried reinforcements and supplies to Crete, while Italy’s navy provided little effective support. Poor coordination among German and Italian forces left the paratroopers isolated.
Without the capture of Maleme airfield, and several Allied blunders, the invasion would almost certainly have ended in disaster. Shocked by the casualties, Hitler banned further large-scale airborne operations. For the rest of the war, German paratroopers fought as conventional infantry.
The Allies Invest in Airborne Forces
The Allies viewed Crete differently. To them, the battle proved airborne troops could tip the balance in large operations if used correctly. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill quickly ordered the creation of the 1st Airborne Division. The United States soon followed, establishing the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions in 1942. By the war’s end, both nations had expanded their airborne forces significantly.
Unlike the Germans, the Allies emphasized flexibility. Paratroopers would not be expected to seize entire islands or cities alone, but to disrupt enemy defenses, secure key terrain and hold until reinforced. They also jumped with full combat loads consisting of weapons, radios, explosives and other gear. Additionally, Allied parachute lines connected at the shoulders, allowing the paratroopers to steer during their descent.
Specialized gliders carried light vehicles, artillery and even tanks into battle, giving Allied airborne forces more combat power than their German counterparts.
Allied Paratroopers See Combat for the First Time
The first major Allied airborne mission came during Operation Torch in November 1942. Despite poor weather and a long flight from Britain, the 509th Parachute Infantry captured several airfields in North Africa, linking up with ground troops by nightfall. Troops from the British 1st Airborne also landed behind enemy lines.
A larger test came with Operation Husky, the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943. The American 82nd and British 1st Airborne divisions dropped behind Italian lines to seize bridges, block reinforcements and sow confusion. They succeeded, though not without setbacks. Friendly fire from the navy destroyed dozens of American transports, and scattered drops left many units isolated. Italian forces even drove British paratroopers off several objectives.
Even so, the airborne troops slowed Axis counterattacks long enough for amphibious forces to secure the beaches. Unlike the Germans and Italians, American and British forces were able to cooperate and put their full airborne and amphibious capabilities to the test. The result: Sicily was one of the largest and most successful campaigns of the war. Paratroopers had played a vital role.
The Invasion of Normandy: Airborne at Its Peak
The lessons of Sicily shaped the Allied airborne plan for D-Day. Before dawn on June 6, 1944, pathfinders parachuted into Normandy to mark drop zones with lights and radio beacons to guide the airborne forces to their drop zones. Hours later, the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions, along with the British 6th Airborne Division, began landing across northern France. Their transports were painted with white invasion stripes to prevent friendly fire incidents.
Despite heavy losses and scattered drops, the paratroopers rallied to block the beaches from enemy reinforcements. The 82nd captured Sainte-Mère-Église, blocking German access to Utah Beach. The 101st defeated German paratroopers in Carentan, linking Omaha and Utah Beaches. British airborne troops secured bridges over the Orne River, protecting the invasion’s eastern flank. Across the front, airborne units destroyed artillery, radar and supply depots, crippling German defenses.
Gliders brought in jeeps, artillery and light tanks, bolstering the paratroopers until seaborne reinforcements arrived. Deception operations, including dummy paratrooper drops, further paralyzed German commanders, who hesitated to commit reserves. Initial German counterattacks were ambushed and blunted by scattered paratrooper groups.
By the morning, Allied air and naval forces decimated the French coast while the amphibious assault began. The Allied powers not only learned to cooperate with each other, but also perfected inter-service cooperation to ensure success.
By the time German leaders realized the scope of the invasion, more than 100,000 Allied troops had landed and linked up with airborne forces. Yet again, Allied paratroopers had carved a path for Allied reinforcements to break through enemy defenses, leading to the destruction of the German army in France.
The Legacy of Allied Paratroopers During WWII
Not every Allied airborne operation succeeded. Only three months after Normandy, Operation Market Garden, the largest airborne operation in history, ended in disaster. British troops had landed too far from their objectives and were unable to hold back multiple German armor divisions. While the Allied column fought up Highway 69 to reach their comrades, they were slowed by German counterattacks and failed to secure all the bridges.
Nevertheless, Allied forces would conduct further airborne operations in both Europe and the Pacific before the war’s end. But the doctrine of airborne drops, combined with air, land and naval power, proved highly effective in weakening an enemy force before a major assault.
While German paratroopers became little more than infantry after Crete, U.S. airborne units grew into some of the most respected formations of the war. Their ethos still defines American soldiers in the 82nd, 101st and special operations forces today.
Even in modern conflicts from Panama to Iraq, U.S. airborne troops have seized key airfields and strategic positions. The lessons learned from Crete, Sicily and Normandy continue to shape how airborne forces fight and prove that the concept is far from obsolete.
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